Synthesis of Research on Time and Learning

E ducational research confirms the ancient wisdom that practice makes perfect; and educational reform groups such as the National Governors' Association (1986) are call ing on educators to allocate more time for students to learn. In this paper, I review current psychological research on the effects of time and discuss policy and practical implications. I also propose that "productive time" rather than "allocated time" or "time-ontask" should be a new focus of educa tional renewal. Educators, parents, and policymakers have begun a variety of programs to increase learning time. These in clude preschool, half-day and full-day kindergarten, active parental stimula tion of children at home, the use of instructional methods and motivation al techniques in the classroom to in crease "engaged time" in school, more homework with feedback, extencled-day school, and summer school for children who fall behind. To elucidate the principles of such various programs and to provide an understanding to increase their effec tiveness, I will discuss psychological theory and research on the effects of time on learning and talent develop ment, and how students spend their time in school.